NORGE
Norway
1
From the last
decades of the 8th century Norwegians started expanding across the seas to the
British Isles and later Iceland and Greenland. The Viking Age also saw the
unification of the country. Christianization took place during the 11th
century and Nidaros became an archdiocese. The population expanded quickly
until 1349 (Oslo:3000, Bergen:7,000, Trondheim:4.000) when it was halved by
the Black Death and successive plagues. Bergen became the main trading port,
controlled by the Hanseatic League. Norway entered the Kalmar Union with
Denmark and Sweden in 1397. After Sweden
left the union in 1523, Norway became the junior partner in Denmark–Norway.
The Reformation was introduced in 1537 and absolute monarchy imposed in 1661.
In 1814 Norway was ceded by Denmark to Sweden and a
constitution was passed. Norway declared its independence but was then
occupied by Sweden, although the Parliament was allowed to continue to exist.
Industrialization started in the 1840s and from the 1860s large-scale
emigration to North America took place. In 1884 the king appointed Johan
Sverdrup as prime minister, thus establishing parliamentarism. The union with
Sweden was dissolved in 1905. |
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The Viking Age |
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The Viking Age was a period of Scandinavian expansion
through trade, colonization and raids. The first raid was against Lindisfarne
in 793 and is considered the beginning of the Viking Age. This could take
place because of the development of the longship, suitable for travel across
the sea, and advanced navigation techniques. The expeditions
and raids took place by bands organized in the so-called leiðangr system. This was a system
organising a coastal fleet with the aim of defence, coerced trade,
plunderings and aggressive wars. Normally, the fleet levy was on expeditions
for two or three summer months. All free men, i.e. the peasants, were obliged
to take part in or contribute to the leiðangr. All of the leiðangr
was called to arms when invading forces threatened the land. In the
expeditions only a fraction of the ships were taking part, but as the
expeditions often were profitable many magnates and chieftains tried to join
with their people as often as possible. A Viking Fleet Inscription on wood showing
about thirty ships of which two ships with dragon figureheads and four with
jacks. Bergen National Maritime
Museum. The lands were
divided into districts, ship's crews, "skipreiða" (Old
Norse), "skipæn" (Danish) or "roslag"
(Swedish). The farmers of the district had to build and equip a rowed sailing
ship. The size of the ships was defined as a standardized number of oars,
initially forty oars, later the standardized size of 24 was increased. In
Norway, there were 279 such districts in 1277, in Denmark two-three times as
many. The head of a district was called "styrimaðr" or "styræsmand",
steersman, and he functioned as captain of the ship. The smallest unit was
the crew of peasants who had to arm and provide for one oarsman ("hafnæ"
in Danish, "manngerð" in Old Norse). According to
the Law of Uppland, the hundreds of Uppland provided as many as four
ships each, those of Västmanland two ships and those of Roslagen one ship. The older laws
regulating the leiðangr (the Norwegian "Older Law of the
Gulating" dates to the 11th or 12th century) require every man to, as a
minimum, arm himself with an axe or a sword in addition to spear and shield,
and for every rowbench (typically of two men) to have a bow and 24 arrows. Later
12th-13th century changes to this law code list more extensive equipment for
the more affluent freemen, with helmet, mail hauberk, shield, spear and sword
being what the well-to-do farmer or burgher must bring to war. In 12th-13th
century sources detailing the 11th century, jarls are mentioned as the
chieftain of the leiðangr, in the 12th century the bishop could also
be head of the fleet levy, although typically nobles lead levies in the 12th
to 14th centuries. When it comes
to heraldry, the Viking raids may have contributed to a heraldic system in
Norway more or less copied from the Saxons of
England. Norse
heraldry, that is to say the heraldry developed in the Viking and Norse
world, was in vigour on the coasts of the North-sea, then functioning as a
norse internal sea, in particular of England, Frisia, Denmark and Norway.
The culture of war was a culture of
maritime warfare fought by what we may call now marines, soldiers of the sea having important tasks on the shore.
The system of badges of rank was borrowed from the roman system more or less
described by the roman chronicler Vegetius. According
to Flavius Vegetius in his Epitoma Rei Militaris the eagle was the
emblem of the roman legions and the dragon the standard of the cohortes: “Dracones etiam per singulas cohortes a
draconariis feruntur ad proelium” (Every cohors has its own standard in
battle, a dragon, brone by the draconarius)
(Vegetius XIII). The
hierarchy of the standards was (lib. III, cap. 5) ”muta
signa sunt aquilæ, dracones, vexilla, flammulæ, tufæ, pinnæ” (eagles,
dragons, banners, pennons, tufts and points). Apparently the eagle-dragon
system was also adopted on the british islands which belonged to the Roman
Empire from 55 BC until 410 AD. In 293
AD Diocletian made the roman part of the island the diocese of Britannia,
divided in four provinces: Britannia
prima, (Corinium/Cirencester) Maxima Caesariensis,
(Lindum/LIncoln) B. secunda
(Eboracum/York) and Flavia
Caesariensis (Londi nium /London) As Britannia, Roman Britain, was a
consular province, its governors needed to be appointed consul by Rome before
they could govern it. While this rank could be obtained either as a suffect or ordinares, a number of governors were consul ordinares,
and also appear in the List of Early Imperial Roman
Consuls. Later governors could be of the lower, equestrian rank. The consulares or præsides resided
in Londinium (London). The emblem of rank of a consul was an
eagle. In early britannic
heraldry after the Romans had left the isles, the classical emblems of rank
occur now and then but it is not possible to construct an uninterrupted series
spanning the middle ages. The eagle was adopted by some rulers who could
pretend to be the most important rulers of Britannia for a while and were
residing in London or were in its possession. The dragon apparently was
maintained in Wales and Wessex and the lion in Northumbria and later in all
of Britanny. In this
period we are informed that the Vegetius-system was also used by the Saxons
in Germany as the chronicle Widukind writes in the 10th century that they had
a „signum … sacrum, leonis atque draconis et desuper aquilæ volantis
insignitum effigie” hadden. [1] We may also
conclude that the eagle-dragon-lion system was introduced and revived by the
Saxons when colonizing Brittanny. |
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The adoption of the
eagle and the dragon in the Britannic middle ages would imply that the
successors of the consulares could bring about 5000 soldiers in the
field and the rulers of the smaller kingdoms about 500 to 1000. [2]). Even when the
preserved eagles from Roman Britain are not abundant, some remains of them,
for example the Silchester
Eagle and some eagle-brooches, prove that this emblem of rank was known
in Roman Britain. Nevertheless, more impressive evidences are some centuries
younger. Silchester Eagle (Museum of Reading, UK) The most striking
and well-known example of the use of an eagle is the eagle in north german
style of the shield of Sutton Hoo. This has been found in a ship used for the
burial of a king of East/Anglia in the middel of the 7th century, probably
Rædwald (†625). [3] The
burial in a ship makes his relation with the sea visible. The eagle can be
explained by the fact that Raedwald is on the list of Bretwaldas,
kings of Brittannia as given by the english historian Bede. [4] |
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Sutton Hoo eagle Last reconstruction Soon the syle of the eagle was changed. This
can be seen on the gold ring of Æthelwulf, king of Wessex: Gold ring of Æthelwulf, King of
Wessex (839-’58) Such a roman styled eagle is also on coins of
the Norse king Anlaf Guthfridsson who had settled in Eburacum (York), the
former legionary fortress of Brittanny. Not long after an eagle is on a coin
of king Æthelred II from the House of Wessex. In 957-959 Wessex had conquered Northumbria
and Mercia and in this way York was a part of the possessions of the House of
Wessex in the time of Æthelred II.
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In Sweden
6th-9th century heraldic eagles are known from helmets found in burial mounts
in Vendel and Valsgärd. The helmet from Vendel, itself an eagle-helmet, shows
a warrior on horseback with an eagle-crested helmet and between two flying
eagles (symbolizing two legions = 10,000 soldiers ca. and the command of a
7th-10th century byzantine strategus [5]). Warrior on horseback and two eagles on the Vendel
helmet. On the right a warrior with
a battle-axe After
christianization (and in the 19th century) such eagles were thought to have
been the two ravens of Odin called Hugin and Munin which, of course, was an
attempt to ridiculize pagan beliefs, also reducing Odin to a strategus. [6] On
another part his fighting unit (or royal guard) is depicted, also wearing
eagle-crested helmets: Maybe the
eagle was introduced in Norway at an early stage of the Viking age and was
also displayed by the early kings whose names are transmitted by the norse
sagas. No examples of eagles are however preserved in Norway from this early
age. Of importance in this context is the eagle on the Alstad Stone.
The
oldest inscription on this stone shows an eagle in the ancient north-german
style, resembling the eagle of Sutton Hoo. Eagle on the Alstad Stone. As the
newer iscriptions are dated in the 11th century, the ancient eagle may be
somewhat older and may be ascribed to Olaf I (960ca-1000) who had strong
relations with the Roman King Otto III and tried to introduce (in vain)
Christianity in Norway. He was succeded by two earls who cannot have been
qualified to bear an eagle. Heraldic stone, Oslo Cathedral A second testimony of an eagle which could refer to
Olaf I is a stone on Oslo Cathedral depicting a man supported by a lion and
an eagle. This is a norse version of a royal achievement as preserved of King
Otto III depicting him in full official dress and supporterd by two eagles. King Otto III supported by two eagles [8] |
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We may
have more firm foothold in the time of Olaf II Haraldsson (the Saint). The
newer inscriptions on the Altstad Stone are alsmost certain from his reign as
they depict five riders on horseback below an eagle in the common european
style of the time. About the eagle there cannot be any doubt that a royal
badge is meant. The five
riders correspond with the five princes of Upland who helped Olaf gaining his
throne in 1015. Heimskringla relates this period as follows: At
that time there were many kings in the Uplands who had districts to rule
over, and the most of them were descended from Harald Harfager. In Hedemark two brothers ruled -- Hrorek and Ring; in Gudbrandsdal, Gudrod;
and there was also a king in Raumarike;
and one had Hadaland and Thoten;
and in Valders also there was a
king. With these district-kings Sigurd
had a meeting up in Hadaland, and Olaf Haraldson also met with them. To these district-kings whom Sigurd had
assembled he set forth his stepson Olaf's purpose, and asked their aid, both
of men and in counsel and consent; and represented to them how necessary it
was to cast off the yoke which the Danes and Swedes had laid upon them. He said that there was now a man before
them who could head such an enterprise; and he recounted the many brave
actions which Olaf had achieved upon his war-expeditions. [9] |
The Eagle of Olaf
Haraldsson |
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In the next verses
only one of the rulers refuses help but the five others of Hedemark,
Gudbrandsdal, Raumarike, Hadaland & Thoten and Valders consent. The fact
that the stone orignates from Toten also is an indication that a monument for
the king and his supporters was erected. There are other proofs that the badge of rank
of Olaf Tryggvason was an eagle. These are the eagles on pennies struck by
Olaf II.The first of these show a Paschal Lamb on the obverse and an eagle of
the shape of the eagle of Alstad on the reverse: Penny of Olaf II. [10] This penny is a
fair copy of the similar penny struck by king Æthelred of England to which
Olaf had rendered valuable services aginst his enemy Canute the Dane in 1014.
Agnus
Dei penny of King Æthelred of England Nevertheless there
is another penny of Olaf showing an eagle of different design: Penny of Olaf
the Saint Showing his bust and an eagle upright [11] Brass jack from Heggen (Sogn og
Fjordane) 1st half 11th century.
Showing an eagle in Ringerike
style. On top is a lion passant. Complicated
feathers-and-wings motifs were also used in 12th century norse woodcarving
but the eagle motif was omitted. |
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Bracteat from the time of Håkon IV Håkonsson |
After
these eagles it takes long before we met another one in connection with a
norse king. Even then, its use was an exception and a last example occurred
on a 13th century royal seal to disappear completely afterwards. A
bracteate showing an eagle was struck during the reign of Håkon IV
Håkonsson (1217-’63), probably after he had been crowned king in 1247. An eagle was also used by his sons. It is,
apparently only its sinister half, on the shield of his son and co-regent
Håkon the Younger (†1257). It is also on the seal of his son, co-regent (1257-)
and sucessor Magnus Håkonsson (*1238)), strongly resembling the seal of King
Edward I of England (1272-1307). [12] In this instance
it is on top of a lily-scepter, the eagle symbolizing the dignity of a roman
consul, the fleur de
lys armed authority. |
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Equestrian Seal of Haakon the Younger Arms: (demi) eagle.
L.: X REX : HACO :
PRECLARVS : PROBVS : AR[m]IS : PEC[tore : gnarvs]. Date: Bjorgvin 06.10,1250.
[13] Seal of Majesty of Magnus Haakonssøn Lagabøter
(1263-’80) The king on his throne with lily-sceptre
crested with an eagle. L.: [Sigillvm Magni Haconis.. Dei Gracia] REGIS
[nor]WAGIE. Date: Tunsberg, 18.07.1278. [14] |
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In the
norwegian context the dragon occurred in the first place as a figurehead of
the famous Viking ships. Not every ship had such a figurehead and, as we
know, some ships had an eagle’s head or a lion’s head for figurehead. A
Viking fleet is depicted on a piece of wood which shows about 45 ships of
which two have a dragon’s head for figurehead. Viking Fleet, Carving on wood. National Maritime Museum, Bergen. |
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Three of
them have jacks in the shape of the brass jacks found in Heggen with their
fringes consisting of balls pending from the rim of them. In military
terms the picture is of a fleet of between 1080 and 1800 oars commanded by
two commanders (or vice admirals). This has to be compared with the size of
the naval command of a byzantine turmarch
which diminished between about 750 and 950 AD from 2000 to 800 men. Such a
command was divided between two drungaries,
each commanding between 1000 and 400 men in the late 10th century. At the
same time the command of a hecatontarch
(of the level of a centurion)
augmented from 40 to 100 men. [15] This last number is the number of the four crews ("skipreiða") of each of the hundreds of Upland
who provided four ships (of 24 oarsmen - manngerð) each. These hundreds for that reason can
readily be compared with the byzantine hecatontarchs.
It is not suggested here that the Viking navy was organized alon byzantine
principles but nevertheless it must be pointed at the fact that relations
between the Vikings and Byzantium were quite intensive up to the point that
Emperor Basil II employed a guard of Varangians
after 988. As the
fleet has two commanders a dragon’s head has to be the badge of rank of a
commander of the level of a drungary
for which no term in old norse is available. Accepting
the theory that a dragon’s head represented a command of about 1000 in the
ninth century the dragon’s heads found in Gokstad and Oseberg can be ascribed
to a Viking vice-admiral comparable with a Byzantine drungary. This idea matches the fact that the two burials seem to
have been of high-ranking naval commanders commanding in that case about 25
to 40 skipreiða.[16] |
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Dragon head
from the Oseberg tent poles |
Dragon heads from the Gokstad tent poles |
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From the time
of the Oseberg- and Gokstad ships is a drawing of a Viking ship with a
figurehead strongly resembling the dragon-heads of the tent-poles: Viking ship From a 9-10th century
Anglo-Saxon manuscript from Northumbria now in the British Library. Even if the figurehead an almost exact copy of the
norse dragon heads the rest of the ship seems to be a little bit freely
interpreted. However, the artist was wel aware that there was a construction
(a stave-church!) on the deck which could house the commander. |
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A
description of a ship with a dragon figurehead is from Snorri Sturlusson
(writing in the beginning of the 13th century) who describes the ship of a
free man called Raud, attacked by Olav Tryggvason (r. 995-1000). His ship is called
‘of a great chief’: 85 THORER HJORTS DEATH There was a bonde, by name
Raud the Strong, who dwelt in Godey in Salten fjord. Raud was a very rich man, who had many
house servants; and likewise was a powerful man, who had many Fins in his
service when he wanted them. Raud was
a great idolater, and very skillful in witchcraft, and was a great friend of
Thorer Hjort, before spoken of. Both
were great chiefs. Now when they heard
that King Olaf was coming with a great force from the south to Halogaland,
they gathered together an army, ordered out ships, and they too had a great
force on foot. Raud had a large ship with a gilded head formed like a dragon,
which ship had thirty rowing benches, and even for that kind of ship was very
large. …. Later
Olaf captured the ship of Raud: 87. OF RAUD'S BEING
TORTURED. Now when they came to Raud's
house his great ship, the dragon,
was afloat close to the land. King Olaf went up to the house immediately with
his people; made an attack on the loft in which Raud was sleeping, and broke
it open. […..] Then the king took the dragonship which Raud had owned, and
steered it himself; for it was a much larger and handsomer vessel than the
Crane (the ship of Olav Trygavson). In front it had a dragon's head, and aft
a crook, which turned up, and ended with the figure of the dragon's
tail. The carved work on each side of
the stem and stern was gilded. This
ship the king called the Serpent. When the sails were hoisted they
represented, as it were, the dragon's wings; and the ship was the handsomest
in all Norway. And ordered a lager ship of the same shape: 95. BUILDING OF THE SHIP
LONG SERPENT. The winter after, King Olaf
came from Halogaland (A.D. 1000), he had a great vessel built at Hladhamrar,
which was larger than any ship in the country, and of which the beam-knees
are still to be seen. The length of keel that rested upon the grass was
seventy-four ells. […..] The
ship was a dragon, built after the one the king had captured in Halogaland;
but this ship was far larger, and more carefully put together in all her
parts. The king called this ship Serpent the Long, and the other Serpent the
Short. The long Serpent had thirty-four benches for rowers. The head and the
arched tail were both gilt, and the bulwarks were as high as in sea-going
ships. This ship was the best and most costly ship ever made in Norway.[17] |
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At the
end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th century dragons were drawn in the
so-called Ringerike style characterized
by complicated plaited patterns. An example of such a dragon is on the
socalled Söderala brass jack from Sweden: Brass jack from Söderala Statens Historiska Museum,
Stockholm |
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Another
example from outside Norway is on an axe in socalled Mammen style and this
axe, consequently, should have belonged to a commander of 1000. |
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Still
other dragons are on the Bayeux Tapestry of the end of the 11th century where
they are on the bows of ships, on the shields of his envoys and on standards.
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The
dragon survived in Christian times in Norway, It was sculptured on some parts
of the famous stave churches for example in Hopperstad and Gol. The ones
preserved however are not always free from doubt. Also, it seems, its meaning
of a badge of rank was lost at the beginning of the 13th century. It was
replaced by its meaning of a symbol of
the Old Testament and, later, of paganism in general. Dragon from Hopperstad Stave Church (after 1150) |
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Dragon. 15th century (?) Museum of Natural History and Archaeology, Trondheim While the eagle best fits the high kings of Norway,
the dragon best fits the petty kings
of which there were many in ancient Norway. These rulers might be called petty kings, herser, subkings, kings or jarls depending on the source but in
fact their best title would be just viking.
Indeed, viking ships are closely
associated with longships with dragon-heads for figurehead. As these vikings disappeared in the course of history, the dragons they
bore as a badge of rank disappeared with them. |
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Besides
eagles and dragons also lions have been preserved from ancient Norway. The
most beautiful pieces have been found in the famous 9th century Oseberg
burial mount. Here a sledge with lion head posts and lion head posts of uncertain
function were unearthed. |
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Oseberg lion head post, 9th century Viking ship Museum, Oslo. |
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Lion head post on the sledge Matching the Oseberg lion
head post called ‘of the master of the baroque’ |
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For more
than a century these lion heads remain the only testimonies of the use of a
lion badge. A brass jack showing a lion in Mammen- or Ringerike style dating
from about 1000 has been preserved as a wind vane on the church of Heggen. Brass Jack from Heggen Church, Buskerud. 1000-1050 Lion, the upper rim crested
with another lion Univ. Museum of Cultural
Heritage, Oslo. Inv. Nr C 23602 |
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And
another lion dating from about the same period is on the so-called
Vangsteinen, today still standing near Vang church (Vang,
Oppland). The Vang stone, beginning 11th century Lion passant and plaited motif below. The text
on the stone in runic script reads: kosa :
sunir : ristu : s(t)in : þinsi : af(t)ir :
kunar : bruþur:sun (The sons of Gasa erected this stone to the
memory of Gunnar, her brother’s son [18])
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In the
middle of the 12th century lions were used as guardians of the entrances of
some newly built stave churches: Lions and lion heads guarding the entrance of the
stave church of Ǻl (Hallingdal, Buskerud) ca. 1150 Univ. Museum of Cultural
Heritage, Oslo. Inv.nr. C 10590 |
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Lions guarding the entrance of Lom stave church,
after 1160. From the
same period a chair has been preserved showing a square cross charged with a
medallion on which is a picture of a standing man supported by two animals. |
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Chair from Tyldal Church, Østerdalen, Hedmark.
1150-1200 Univ. Museum of Cultural
Heritage, Oslo. Inv.nr. C 9906 [19] |
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Because
of the cross being a square cross, the chair has to be destined for an
administrative official, the square cross being the symbol of christian
administrative authority. The man
supported by two animals stands in an ancient tradition which we met earlier
in the Oslo Cathedral stone. A much much older
example of such an achievement is on the Sutton Hoo purse: |
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In
general such an achievement means “the institution of” the unity symbolized
by the central motiv, the supporters themselves being the badges of rank of
the supporting official. In many cases such achievements were displayed by
heads of state, chiefs administration, the magister officiorum, the major
domus, the vizir or prime
minister. The achievement on the chair can, amongst others, be compared with
the so-called Sicilian
Coronation mantle. Indeed we
must accept in that case that the beasts supporting the official on the chair
and also the two other pairs of beasts on the chair, are lions and not other
beasts like wolves or other quadrupeds. Also it
remains to be established whose administration can be mean,t as there have
been six kings in Norway between 1157 and 1204. However, we may be fairly
sure that the chair has belonged to a royal governor of Hedmark. |
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© Hubert de Vries 2013-09-18
[1] Res Gestæ Sax., I,
11 (Mon. Germ Hist., SS., III, 422.) The three-volume Res
gestae saxonicae sive annalium libri tres ("The Deeds of the
Saxons, or Three Books of Annals") is a chronicle of 10th century Germany
written by Widukind of Corvey.
[2] Compare this with
the estimated 7000 to 8000 soldiers of the English and the Normans at the
battle of Hastings and the seven Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms
[3] Bruce-Mitford, Rupert: The Sutton-Hoo
Ship-Burial. London, 1972. Ch. VII: Who was He? According to B. …The evidence
strongly favours Rædwald (d. 625/6) and
no earlier king is possible.
[4] Bede (672-735)
wrote the Historica Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum an important source
for the study of English medieval history. (Brooke, C. 1963, p. 103) Bretwaldas Listed by Bede and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Aelle
of Sussex (488–c.514); Ceawlin
of Wessex (560–92, died 593); Æthelberht of Kent (590–616); Rædwald of East Anglia (c600–24); Edwin of Deira (616–33); Oswald of Northumbria (633–42); Oswiu of Northumbria (642-70). Mercian rulers with similar or greater authority: Wulfhere of Mercia (658-675); Æthelred of Mercia (675-704, died 716); Æthelbald of Mercia (716-757); Offa of
Mercia (757-796); Cœnwulf of Mercia (796-821). Listed only by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Egbert
of Wessex (802–39).
[5] Treadgold, Warren: Byzantium and its Army 284-1081.
Stanford Univ. Press. 1995. P. 101.
[6] Grímnismál,
verse 20.
[7] Alstad Stone. Alstad,
Toten, Oppland (Norway). 11th
century. University Museum of Cultural Heritage. Oslo. Inv. Nr. C 22007.
[8] Seidenstickerei mit Adlerflug Alexanders des
Großen. Wurzburg, Mainfrankisches Museum. Inv. Nr. H. 5604. Lit.: Otto der
Grosse, Magdeburg und Europa. Mjainz 2001. Bd. II. Pp. 260-281.
[9] http://omacl.org/Heimskringla/haraldson1.html
34.
KINGS IN THE UPLAND DISTRICTS.
[10] From: Øverland, O.A. (1885). Illustreret Norges
Historie. B. 1: Fra de ældste Tider til
Slaget på Stiklestad (1030). Folkebladet.
[11]
Fra Olav den Helliges tid (1015–1030) er det
bare bevart en håndfull norske mynter. Denne mynten skiller seg ut. Baksiden
har et motiv med den hellige ånds due. Foto: Lill-Ann Chepstow-Lusty
[12] It is said that the seals of Haakon the elder
and his sons were cur in England. This would also explain why the kings on the
seals do not resemble the preserved 12th century sculptures of Norwegian kings.
[13] Brinchmann, Chr.: Norske
sigiller fra middelalderen: Kongelige och fyrstliche segl. Kristiania, 1924 p. 4 pl. IV.
[14] Brinchmann op.cit. p. 4, Pl. VI, 1
[15] Treadgold, Warren: Byzantium and
its Army 284-1081. Stanford Univ. Press. 1995. P. 97
[16] As the Gokstad burial was equipped with three
small boats.
[17] http://omacl.org/Heimskringla/trygvason2.html & …trygvason3.html.
[18] Vang is situated in the ‘kingdom’ of Valders whose ruler participated in the coup
of Olaf Magnusson in 1015.
[19] On the other parts of the chair lions and
dragons.