TWO-HEADED
EAGLE
The
two-headed eagle consists of the body, wings and claws of an eagle and has
two heads. It is of very old origin. In the middleages it was the symbol of
rank of a Roman caesar and was used by rulers wearing the title of kaiser,
tsar and basileus, and also by rulers entitled imperator.
These titles were used by those rulers governing one of the parts of the
Roman Empire in the time of the tetrarchy when there were two caesares
and two augusti each ruling a prefecture. The
two-headed eagle was the successor of the gorgoneion of pagan times, as well as of the Christian
Roman Empire after Constantine. A new weaving
technique developed in Sassanian Persia at the turn of the fourth to the
fifth century had made it possible to make patterns a part of the cloth
itself. This may be the reason why the earliest two-headed eagles known are
on silk clothes used for the cloaks of military commanders. Such cloaks were
cared for by cape bearers, according to Emperor Maurices’ (582-602) Strategicon
one for each tribune (commander of 500). [1] Its is not clear however if these
cloaks were merely for ceremonial purposes or had a strategic function. It
remains to be explained what the beasts in the claws of the two-headed eagles
exactly mean. Probably they were the badges of military or civil officials of
the banda of the supreme commander or of the supreme commander
himself. The
two-headed eagle was used all over the former Roman empire of its largest extend and also in Russia and
Nubia which were under stong cultural influence of the Christian Byzantine
Empire. In the
prefecture Oriens it was used by the Christian basileis of Byzantium and the Seljuq rulers in Asia
Minor and Egypt. In the
prefecture Thracia it was used by the tsars of Serbia and Bulgaria, and also
by the tsars or basileis of Epire and Achaia. In the prefecture
Gallia it was used by the caliph of Cordoba and the emperor of Spain, king of
Castile and also by the augustus of the Holy Roman Empire, king of
Germany. No
commanders within the prefecture Italy are known to have used the two-headed
eagle. |
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The
two-headed eagle is of Hittite origin. Early examples are from the center of
the Hittite empire in central Anatolia (Asia Minor). Two-headed eagles are on
seals but also on sculptures. In the last case they have other beasts in
their claws and are apparently the symbol of the ruler standing on it. Thus,
the two-headed eagle may have been the symbol of the tribe of the ruler but
also of the ruler himself. |
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Print of a seal: Two-headed eagle surrounded by a twisted cord. From
Kültepe-Kanis, 18th c. B.C. (Museum Ankara). |
Print of a seal: Two-headed eagle, a twisted cord below. From
Bogazköy . 18th c.B.C. (Museum Ankara). |
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Sphinx gate of Alaca Hüyük 14th c. BC Ruler
standing on a two-headed eagle catching two rabbits. |
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Rock sanctuary of Yazilikaya, 13th c B.C. Inauguration
scene, on the right two princes standing on a two-headed eagle An
interpretation of this scene reads: This
is the central scene in Chamber A. There
are many figures on either side of this scene forming two processions of gods
that lead up to this central meeting of Teshub and Hebat. The
figures in this picture are, left to right, as follows: First
is probably Teshub's brother, standing astride two mountain peaks. Next is
Teshub, the weather god, who is bearded and wears a tall, conical hat and a
short-skirted tunic; he stands on the shoulders of two mountain gods
(probably Namni and Hazzi). Facing him is the sun goddess Hebat wearing a
fluted, cylindrical hat and a blouse and long skirt; she stands on the back
of a large feline, which is in turn standing on mountain peaks. Behind her is
Sharrumma, the son of Teshub and Hebat. He is the only male figure in the
procession behind Hebat. He too stands and the back of a feline that is
standing on mountain peaks. Next come two female figures: the first is
identified as Alanzu, the daughter of Teshub and Hebat; the second might be
their granddaughter. They are dressed similarly to Hebat, but the clothes
aren't as full and flowing as hers; they are supported by a double headed
eagle with wings spread. .... but
a more secular interpretation is possible: the “Gods” being rulers, the
“Goddesses” being a vizier, a warrior and governors or civil offcials. |
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After the Hittite two-headed eagles there is a gap
of almost two millennia to be filled. In the meantime the emblem of the
supreme commander in the Hellenistic world was a monstruous head, being the
head of the army personified by Medusa, Nike or Victoria. After the
introduction of Christianity in the Roman Empire the cypher of Christ consisting
of the greek letters XP (chi-rho) became the emblem under which the
army would conquer (In Hoc Signo Vinces). The supreme commanders
attached this cypher to their shields, sometimes surrounded by a bordure set
with precious stones, sometimes with a garland of laurel. The XP-cypher as a symbol of the armed forces was
maintained in the West by the Carolingians but seems to have been abandoned
afterwards. It is striking that the two-headed eagle appeared for the first
time at the borders of the Christian world and thus may have been of pagan or
muslim origin, later also adopted by Christian commanders. The first pieces
showing a two-headed eagle may have been booty, captured by Christian
commanders in the Reconquista in Spain and may have been the emblems of the
Umayyad supreme commanders. Early European two-headed eagles date from the
early time of the Renovatio Imperii of the House of Saxony in Germany,
from Umayyad Spain and from Bulgaria. Two-headed eagle on the
Shroud of St. Amadus 10 -12th c. Riggisberg, Abegg-Stiftung CH-3132. Part of the treasury of St. Peter in Salzburg, Austria, and probably
manufactured in islamic Spain, 11th century. [2] This piece of silk cloth is from the time of the German
House of Saxony (919-1024) on the one hand and of the Spanish Umayyad Dynasty
(756-1027) on the other hand. From about the
same time are two other pieces, the first from Bulgaria, the other from
France. |
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Stone slab with Double-Headed Eagle Bulgarian (Stara Zagora), 10th-11th century Red schist 72.5 Í
110 cm. Nasionalen Arkheologicheski Muzei, Sofia Inv. nr.B: 854. [3] This piece is
from the time of the Macedonian Empire in Bulgaria (976-1018) or from the
time of Byzantine occupation (971-976 & 1018-1185) and may be the emblem
of rank of the Bulgarian tsar/basileus in (the former prefecture) Illyricum |
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Blue
Tissue from San Zoilo Monastery (Palencia, Spain) Wall-hanging with 36 white two-headed eagles on a
blue background. Two sided, on the reverse the colours reversed. Kufic
inscriptions. 10th-11th century. 275´208 cm The wall hanging may have been used by Alfonso VII
of Leon (1105-1157) nicknamed El
Emperador (The Emperor) in spite of the dating of the tissue which is about a
hundred years before his rule. Maybe it was a part of the booty of his
campaigns or crusades to the Almoravides of Al Andalus. The eight-lobed
figure on the breast of the eagle may be a sun-symbol. |
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Pseudo-saint
Clément, Recognitiones The Archangel
Michael (killing a devil) and a monk, a two-headed eagle between the arches Mont
Saint-Michel (FR.) about 1000 A.D. Avranches,
Bibliothèque Municipale ms. 50 This manuscript
is from the time of Otto III, crowned emperor in 996 (†1002) who strongly
propagated the Renovatio Imperii. Also, as the Archangel Michael was
the patron of the Castilian and French Kings, the scene may refer to the
killing of the Muslim devil, his emblem being attached between the arches. Photo H.d.V. 2016 Piece of silk with fragment of yellow two-headed eagles on purple
background. 10th-11th cent.. Coll. Musée
de Sens (Fr.) For a
short time in the 12th century the two-headed eagle was used in Spain, after
the capital Toledo had come into the possession of the Kings of Castile in
1085. Pieces of cloth with two-headed eagles are also from the time of
Alphonso VII of Castile, who had united the Spanish Kingdoms, was crowned
Emperor of All Spains in 1135, and calling himself on his seals + ADEFONSUS
IMPERATOR HISPANIAE. Again
these pieces may be of Muslim origin and may have belonged to commanders from
the Almoravid Empire (1060-1147) from
which Toledo was captured. |
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Textile Fragment with
Double-Headed Eagles Islamic (Spain), 11th-12th century. Silk, 63 Í 46 cm. provenance: From
the tomb of Saint Bernard of Calvó in the Cathedral of Vich, Catalonia,
Spain; Miguel y Badia, Madrid. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N.Y.
Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1941 (41.92). This
silk fragment belongs to one of several fabrics found in the tomb of Saint
Bernard of Calvó (d. 1243) in the Cathedral of Vich in Catalonia. They are
believed to be a part of a booty from the reconquest campaigns against the
Muslims of Spain that Calvó led as bishop of Vich. [..] |
Textile Fragment with
Double-Headed Eagles Islamic (Spain), 12th century. Silk. 29Í19 cm Achat à Chamonton, 1906. Inv. 28003. Musée des Tissus, Lyon. This silk fragment belongs to the «cloak of
the Virgin» of Thuirs, in the Pyrénées Orientales. Such silk clothes were used by christian princes and for liturgic
purposes. [4] |
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Detail of the Tunica of Infante Don Garcia (†1145/46), son of Alfonso
VII El Emperdor From
his tomb in the Parochial Church of Oña
in Burgos. Two-headed eagles, emblems of rank of a caesar
(military), and peacocks, emblems of rank of a prefect (civil). [5] This is the first proof that the two-headed eagle emblem was adopted
by a christian commander. |
Two-headed-eagle with
lions Spain, 12th-13th cent. Green silk with golden
figures on a ca 25Í16 cm grid.. Detail of a piece of 50Í55cm. Lyon, Musée
des Tissus, inv. N° MT 25080 [6] This cloth maybe was a part of the treasury
of King Tancred of Sicily, brought to Germany by Roman Emperor Henry VI. As a
supreme commander Henry VI dressed himself in green and red and consequently
the piece may have been a part of his imperial dress. The lions are the
emblem of a dux (commander of an army division) |
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A next
step in the development of the two-headed eagle in the West was the adoption
of the two-headed eagle emblem by the Holy Roman Emperor. This adoption is documented
by Matthew Paris in his Chronica Majora. [7] He shows us the arms of King and
Emperor Otto IV, the first being: Gules, three lions passant Or dimidiating
Or, an eagle Sable; the second: Or, a two-headed eagle Sable. The last arms
have been the arms of the Holy Roman Emperor until the end of the 15th
century before they became the arms of Germany (German Nation of the Holy
Roman Empire † 1806). |
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This coat
of arms classifies the Holy Roman Emperor as a basileus, a title often
bestowed to the Western ruler in Byzantine correspondence. It matches with
the german title “Kaiser”, rather than the title IMPERATOR
[SEMPER] AUGUSTUS
which was on the seals of the Western Roman ruler since the coronation of
Charlemagne. This, in fact meant a degradation as the emblem of the Western
Roman Emperor had been a square cross before. After the 4th Crusade however,
it was propagated by the Holy See that the Latin Empire was the restoration
of the former Roman Empire and for that reason the Latin Emperor bore the
square cross as his emblem. All other major rulers in the Empire were caesares
from that point of view and bore a two-headed eagle. In fact the
two-headed eagle of the western caesar is an augmentation of the arms
of the German king who had a black eagle as his emblem since the end of the
10th century, later placed on a golden background or shield. This emblem
symbolized his rank of a consul. As such
the arms Or, a double eagle Sable are the arms of the caesar of
Germany and in 13th century rolls of arms for that reason is called of... .
l’ emperur d’alemaine. [8] ð Mattheus Parisiensis: Chronica Majora. Corp.
Christi Coll. MS 16 fol. 18: Coronation of Otto IV as Emperor at Rome, 1199
(al. 1209) - lower right margin three crowns
(Corona argentea, corona aurea, corona ferrea) above a shield (or, a
double eagle sable): Otto creatur in
imperatorem Romanorum; a second shield (Gules, three lions passant
guardant Or, dimidiating Or a (double) eagle Sable): Scutum mutatum pro amore regis Angliæ. |
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Throughout its history the Prefecture of Illyria
shows a development of political fragmentation. This kind of fragmentation is
even called Balkanization and it means that a relatively large number of sovereign
states arose. As a result a large number of supreme commanders, often wearing
the title of Emperor or Tsar were active in former Illyria. This
fragmentation only came to a (temporary) end when the Balkans were captured
by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. In this category are Bulgaria, Epirus, Serbia,
Macedonia, Mistra,
and Wallachia. |
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In the
meantime the two-headed eagle was adopted in the Muslim world after the fall
of the Seljuq Empire and the restoration of the temporal power of the
Caliphate of Bagdad in 1157. This is testified by coins bearing a two-headed
eagle from the [nominal] vassals of the Caliphate but also by other pieces
like tiles and consumer goods. These pieces are from the part of the
Caliphate where the confrontation with the western crusaders was the most
violent and demonstrate the mobilisation of the Muslim world against the Christians.We
may be |
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Dirham of Imad al-din
Zengi, Atabeg of Sinjar 1170-1197[9] |
Coin of Al-Malik as-Salih Nasir as-Din Mahmud of
Hisn Kaifa and Amida 1200-1222. |
Bas relief from Amida,
1208[10] |
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Ceramic tile from East Turkey, ca. 1225; Probably
Amida or Konya. Black
or blue two-headed eagle. Ca. 18.2 Í 18.2 cm.
Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin, inv. I.6579 |
Two-headed eagle on a tray North-western
Iran, late 13th century The
trustees of the British Museum, London. (OA 1878.12-30.706) |
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Red silk decorated with two-headed eagles. The
shields within a grid of ca 21 Í
21 cm Berlin, Kunstgewerbemuseum
81, 475 [11] |
Two-headed eagle from the walls of the citadel of Konya From
the reign of Ala ad-Din Kaiqubad (1219-1237) |
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When Kaikhosrau II of Konya had become a mongol
vassal in 1243, the two-headed eagle was replaced by a lion-and-sun, a mongol
badge of rank of about the same value. Also in
Asia Minor were the Empires of Trabzon and Nicea To this
category belongs also the two-headed eagle of the Emperors of Byzantium. |
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Byzantium |
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The badge
of rank of the Nicean and Byzantine emperors was a two-headed eagle. After the
capture of Constantinople buy the crusaders in 1204 a Latin Empire was
founded. Many members of the imperial family took refuge, amongst them
Theodorus Laskaris who founded the Nicean Empire. His successor Theodorus
Laskaris II had a two-heded eagle as his emblem, embroidereed on his
suppedion. After Michael VIII had reconquered Constantinople in 1261 a
restoration of the Byzantine empire seemed possible. At the Council of Lyon, 1272-1274, Pope
Gregory X, wishing to end the Great Schism that divided Rome and
Constantinople, had sent an embassy to Michael VIII Palaeologus and he
asked Latin despots in the East to curb their ambitions. Eastern dignitaries
arrived at Lyon on 24 June presenting a letter from the Emperor. On 29 June,
Gregory X celebrated a Mass in St John's church, where both sides took part.
The Greeks read the Nicene Creed, with the controversial Western addition of
the Filioque clause sung three times. The council was seemingly a
success, but did not provide a lasting solution to the schism; the Emperor
was anxious to heal the schism, but the Eastern clergy proved to be solidly
opposed. Patriarch Joseph of Constantinople abdicated, and was replaced by
John Beccos, a convert to the cause of union. In spite of a sustained
campaign by Beccos to defend the union intellectually, and vigorous and
brutal repression of opponents by Michael, the vast majority of byzantine
christians remained implacable opposed to union with the Latin “heretics”. Michael's death
in December 1282 put an end to the union of Lyons. His son and successor
Andronicus II repudiated the union, and Beccos was forced to abdicate, being
eventually exiled and imprisoned until his death in 1297. He is to this day
reviled by many in the Eastern Church as a traitor to Orthodoxy. |
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Pierced Globe with
two-headed eagles (detail). Made for Badr al-Din Baysari. Brass, inlaid with silver. Ca. 1270. Æ 18,4 cm. London, The British Museum, 78 12-30 682 Henderson
Bequest, 1878. |
Ceramic dish with two-headed eagle Egypt,
end of 13th century; Æ 24 cm, Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin I.268 [12] |
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The explanation of the pierced globe on the right
reads: Inscriptions: Band at apex: Badr
al Din Baysari. [officer] of al-Zajhir al-Said, al-Shamsi al-Mansuri al-Badri Band on rim of
upper hemisphere: One of the things made for the honourable excellency,
the sublime master, the great amir, the revered, the masterful, the chief of
the armies, the defender [of the faith], the warrior [of the frontiers], the
protector [of the frontiers], the supporter [of Islam], the victorious. The piece was made
for Badr al-Din Baysari, one of the important Syrian amirs in the early
Mamluk period. Originally employed by the last Ayyubid sultan, Baysari
entered the service of the Mamluks after the Ayyubids were overthrown. The inscriptions on
the globe refers to two of his Mamluk masters: al-Zahir (Baybars I, 1260-’77)
and al-Said (Baraka Khan, 1277-’79). This powerful amir was twice offered the
Mamluk throne, which he refused, preferring to remain an officer. He was
imprisoned by Qalawun but reinstated by the next sultan, Khalil, under whom
he served as Amir of One Hundred. Badr al-Din Baysari died in 1298 and was
buried in Cairo. [13] |
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The
two-headed eagle was also adopted by rulers outside the former Roman Empire
but they may have had the same meaning of the emblem of rank of the supreme
commander |
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A two-headed eagle was also adopted as the emblem
of rank of the supreme commander in Nubia A fresco found in Abd el-Qadir (somewhat north of
Khartoum), shows a man dressed in an apron strewn with medallions with
two-headed eagles, his tunica with a diamond pattern. He wears also a
cross-sack. On his head he has a particular horned helmet with a six-pointed
star on the front and a crescent as a crest which seems to be a residual form
of the ancient crown of Kush. |
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From 13th
century Central Asia two-headed eagles are known as a pattern on precious
textiles. They are a part of the usual series of military emblems consisting
of lions, griffins, eagles and two-headed eagles. It is not known if the
pieces were made for use in Central Asia itself or for the Christian and
Muslim markets. Cloth of gold with displayed
two-headed eagles mid-13th century, Central Asia.
Silk and metallic thread lampas (nasij); Warp: 57.5 cm, Weft: 18.4 cm. Lent by The Cleveland Museum of Art.
Edward L. Whittemore Fund, 1996.297 [14] |
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Arms of Peremysl, 16th century A
two-headed eagle is known from Galicia and was adopted by King Daniel of
Galicia (1205-’66) from the House of Romanovic. The
Ipatievski Chronicle writes for the year 1235 about his two-headed eagle: “At one
mile from the city (of Chełm) there is a donjon of brick on which is a
stone sculpture of an eagle; and the height of the stone is 10 yards with the
heads, and with the supports 12 yards”. The plural of the word “heads”suggests
that the eagle was two-headed. Also the chronicle mentions that a Byzantine
architect named Audios has built the cathedral of Chełm and it is
thought that he was the also author of the two-headed eagle, being inspired
by Byzantine examples. [15] The ruins of the square donjon
are at Bielawin at two kms of Chełm, a wall
of a height of 22 m. remaining, the rest fallen into the river. Today only
the square foundations remain. The
two-headed eagle matches the aspirations of Daniel to be crowned king of
Russia, a goal he attained in 1253 when he was crowned “Rex Russiae”
in Dorohičin by a nuntio of Pope Innocent IV(1243-'54). So, the
two-headed eagle of Daniel in Bielawin was the emblem of a Russian tsar
in the 13th century. The two-headed eagle was adopted as the coat of arms of Peremysl, which came to Poland in 1366. It was: [Azure] a crowned two headed eagle [Or]. [16] |
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A Russian ruler from the House of Rurik is known
to have used a two-headed eagle as his emblem. It can be seen on the frame of
a 14th century icon, today in St. Petersburg. Golden
two-headed eagles on the Icon of Christ Pantocrator, 1355 ca. Egg tempera over
gesso; wood. State Hermitage. N°
J 515. H. 106 cm. W. 79 cam Acquired in 1930.
Formerly in the State Russian Museum. Christ is shown
half length. In the lower margins are portraits of the
donors. Of the figure in the left margin, only traces of a headdress, part of
the contour outlining the head, and the inscription [δe]hσhσ toy [δoyλoy] θ[eo]y
aλξeioy toy [ςtpato]πeδapxoy ("Prayer of
Gods’s slave, the Grand Stratopedarch Alexius") have survived. The donor
in the right margin wears a tall headdress, and garments with a double eagle
pattern; he is shown in an attitude of prayer, facing towards the centre;
above his head is the inscription È
δehςhς toy δoyδoy θeoy iω [annoy] toy
meγaλoy πpimikypioy ("Prayer of God’s slave, the Grand Primicerion John"). These
two men are, according to written sources of the period, the founders of the
church of Christ Pantocrator, founded 1363. [17] The title of „Megalou Primikuriou” in fact
was the title of the chief of ceremonies and the commander of the central imperial
regiments in Constantinople. Such a commander may have been paralelled
at the Russian court by Ivan II the Gentle, Grand prince of Moscow and
Vladimir (1353-1359). The church of Christ Pantocrator may be a
posthumous foundation of Ivan II. Such a
two-headed eagle was also used by Ivan III, the Great, Grand prince of
Moscow-Vladimir, also of the House of Rurik, on his seal from 1497. |
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Seal: Rider spearing a dragon. L.: GRAND PRINCE IOAN BY GOD’S GRACE SOVEREIGN OF ALL RUS. Counter-seal: Crowned two-headed eagle. L.: AND GRAND PRINCE OF VLAD[IMIR], AND MOSC[OW], AND NOV[GOROD], AND
PSK[OV] AND TVE[R], AND UGO[RA], AND VIAT[KA], AND PER[M], AND BOL[GAR].Date: 1497 [18] After Ivan III
all Russian tsars have used the two-headed eagle as their emblem. For the
last time it was used as an interim emblem after 1992. |
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A two-headed bird is called Gandhabherunda in
India. He is of the same Hittite origin as the two-headed eagle in the West.
A myth says that Vishnu assumed the form of a two-headed eagle to annihilate Sarabha,
a form taken by Shiva to destroy Narasimha (an avatar of
Vishnu) again, a sectarian device to humble a rival creed. Such a bird appears at Sirkap
Stupa which usually is dated at about the beginning of the Christian era.
It is depicted there sitting and turned to the
dexter and this seems to have been the common attitude for centuries. It can
also be found on a fresco in Brihadiswara Temple, consecrated 1010, and much
later on a 16th century Vijayanagar coin. From about the 11th century AD Gandabherunda is
represented in the usual attitude with wings displayed. This may have been a
Seljuq influence. Pictures of Gandabherunda with lions and elephants
in his talons date from the 16th century and later. In the same way the two-headed eagle in the
West was depicted with lions or some other beasts in its claws. In India this
is explained by the myth that he was so strong that he was able to clutch
elephants in his talons and fly away with it. It must be remarked however,
that for centuries elephants were often
used in combat and that the symbol of an elephant may have been the emblem of
function or rank of a high officer commanding the elephant-divisions in war.
The Gandabherunda and elephants would therefore be the emblem of the Supreme
Commander of the Elephants. There is no publication or study however
available that confirms this interesting hypothesis. An example of such a Gandabherunda can be found in
Keladi temple from the time of the Keladi king Shivappa Nayaka. |
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Double headed bird at Sirkap Stupa (1st century
BC-1st century AD) |
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Photo NN Nandi mandapam of Thanjavur Brihadiswara temple, consecrated 1010. |
Gandabherunda Detail
from Garudasthambha temple pillar, Konkani
Math, Goa (13th century ?) |
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Two ½
pagoda coins from Vijayanagar showing a Gandabherunda and elephants. From the time of
king Achytaraya (1529-1542). |
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Gandabherunda
with lions and elephants Keladi
Temple from the time of Shivappa Nayaka (reigned 1645–1660) (Karn.). After the
Vijayanagar rule, Nayakas of Madura and Keladi, continued the usage. Mysore
Wodeyars also followed, omitting the lions and elephants. Today
Gandabherunda is in the arms of Karnataka State (India). Also it is the
emblem of Ternate Sultanate (Indonesia). |
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© Hubert de Vries 2011-07-17; Updated 2011-10-10; 2016-09.07; 2016-09-21
[1] Treadgold, Warren: Byzantium and its army.
1995. pp. 95
[2] Reconstructed
by the Abegg
Stiftung Riggisberg, Switzerland. Lit.: P. Ackermann: A Gold-woven Byzantine Silk of the Tenth
Century. In: Revue des Arts Asiatiques X, 1936, 87-88. D.G. Sheperd: A
mediaeval brocade. In: Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Arts 37, 1950,
195-196; S. Müller-Christensen: Zwei
Seidengewebe als Zeugnisse der Wechselwirkung von Byzanz und Islam. In: Artes Minores. Dank an Werner Abegg.
Bern, 1973, 22-25.
[3] Lit.: Evans, Helen C.
& William D. Wixom. Eds. The Glory of Byzantium. Art and Culture of the
Middle Byzantine Era A.D. 843-1261. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
1997. Pp.326-327.
[4] Musée des Tissus Lyon. Guide des Collections,
1998, p. 69
[5] Dodds, Jerrilynn, D.A.: Andalus. New York,
1992, p. 107-108
[6] Lit.: Arts de l'Islam.
Des origines à 1700 dans les collections publiques françaises, page 170, n°239
; Les soieries d'art depuis les origines jusqu'à nos jours, pl. XXV, n°11.
Another piece of 22 Î 33 cm in Berlin, Kunstgewerbemuseum
inv, nr. 99, 103.
[7] Matteus Parisiensis: Chronica Maiora.
Cambridge Corp Christi College Ms 16,
fol 18.
[8] For example in Camden Roll,
nr. 4. Brault, Gerard J.: Eight
Thirteenth-Century Rolls of Arms in French and Anglo-Norman Blazon. The
Pennsylvania State University Press. University Park and London, 1973.
[9] Clericus, Ludwig A.: Zur Urgeschichte des Doppeladlers. In: Vierteljahrsschrift für Heraldik, Sphragistik und Genealogie. III Jahrgang. Berlin 1875. Pp. 93-101.
[10] After: Berchem, M. van & J. Strzygovski: Amida. Heidelberg, 1910.
[11] Drache, Phönix, Doppeladler. Fabelwesen in der islamischen Kunst. Bilderheft der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin. Heft 75/76. Tafel 10. Kat. 84.: Der stoff wird gewöhnlich über eine andere Seide im Musée Historique des Tissus in Lyon, die den Seldschukenherrscher Ala ad-Din Kaiqubad in einer Inschrift nennt, ebenfalls diesem Sultan zugewiesen.
[12] Ibid, Kat. 81.
[13] Atil, Esin: Renaissace of Islam. Art of the Mamluks. Washington, 1981.
N° 11 pp. 58-59.
[14] Photoshop reconstruction
[15] Solovjev A.V.: Les
emblemes heraldiques de Byzance et les Slaves. In: Sbornik Statej po
Archeologii i Vizantinovedeniju. (Recueil
d' etudes seminarium Kondakovianum Archeologie et histoire d'art. Etudes
Byzantines). Praha, 1935 pp. 147-148
[16] Paprocki, Bartosz: Herby
rycerstwa polskiego zebrane i wydane roku 1584.
[17] Banck, A.: Byzantine Art in the collections of
the USSR. Leningrad 1966. Fig 265-269, p. 377.
[18]) Alef, Gustav: The adoption of the muscovite two-headed eagle: a
discordant view. In: Speculum, A Journal of Mediaeval Studies. Vol. XLI, Jan.
1966, pp. 1-21. P. 1. Polynina, Irina & Nicolai Rakmanov: The Regalia of
the Russian Empire. Moscow, 1994. isbn
5-900743-04-2. p. 17 n° 6.